Alaska Wildlife in the Sitka Sound Area

Life history: Found only in North America, Bald Eagles are more abundant in Alaska than anywhere else in the United States. The Alaska population has been estimated to include 30,000 birds at the time of fledging. Bald Eagles are often found along Alaska’s coast, offshore islands, and Interior lakes and rivers. The highest nesting densities occur on the islands of Southeast Alaska. Most Bald Eagles winter in southern Alaska, but some leave the state during cold months. In the Chilkat Valley, over 3,000 birds may congregate in late fall and early winter to feed on spawned-out salmon.

Reproduction and nesting: Bald Eagles often use and rebuild the same nest each year. Nest trees are usually close to water, afford a clear view of the surrounding area, and often provide sparse cover above the nest. In Southeast Alaska, Bald Eagles usually nest in old-growth timber along saltwater shorelines and mainland rivers. Eagles in Southcentral Alaska nest in old cottonwood trees near water. Nest building begins in April, and both the male and female gather nest material. In late April, two (sometimes three) dull white or creamy yellow eggs are laid several days apart. Incubation lasts about 35 days. When the young hatch, sibling rivalry is common and the weaker, usually the younger, chick is killed or starved. The surviving young leave the nest after approximately 75 days. They do not attain adult plumage and breed until 4 or 5 years of age. After the breeding season, Bald Eagles congregate where food is plentiful, and they may continue to roost near the nest tree.

Reproductive success can be affected by pesticides in the eagles’ prey. Alaska Bald Eagles seem to be reproductively healthy, but contaminants have been recorded in Alaska fish populations and in Bald Eagles. A greater threat to Alaska’s Bald Eagle population is destruction of their nesting habitat and nest disturbances. Nest trees tend to be the largest in the stand and are usually 400 years old. In treeless areas on the Aleutians, nests are located on rock pinnacles, or they may be on the ground.

Food habits: Fish are the main diet of the Bald Eagle. Herring, flounder, pollock, and salmon are taken along the coast, while the Interior populations prey heavily upon salmon. Eagles also prey upon waterfowl, small mammals, sea urchins, clams, crabs, and carrion.

Management protection: Claims by fox farmers and fishers of eagle depredations caused the Alaska Territorial Legislature in 1917 to impose a bounty system on eagles. These claims were later found to be mainly false, but over 100,000 eagles were killed before the bounty was removed in 1953. With statehood in 1959, the Bald Eagle in Alaska received federal protection under the Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940. This act made it illegal to kill or possess an eagle, alive or dead, or to possess any part of an eagle, including feathers. Bald Eagles were endangered or eliminated throughout most of the Lower 48 states as a result of habitat destruction, illegal shooting, pesticides, and poisoning. Bald Eagle populations are recovering in many states because of strong support for endangered species wildlife habitat. Alaska’s populations remain healthy, but careful stewardship and conservation of nesting habitat and salmon spawning streams as well as minimizing human disturbance near nest sites is necessary in order to protect Alaska's Bald Eagles from the potential harm caused by increasing human development.

In 1972, the Alaska State Legislature established a stretch of the Chilkat River as critical bald eagle habitat to ensure protection of the large numbers found there in winter. In 1982, a portion of the surrounding area was established as the Alaska Chilkat Bald Eagle Preserve.

General description: Formerly, taxonomists listed brown and grizzly bears as separate species. Technically, brown and grizzly bears are classified as the same species, Ursus arctos. Brown bears on Kodiak Island are classified as a distinct subspecies from those on the mainland because they are genetically and physically isolated. The shape of their skulls also differs slightly.

The term “brown bear” is commonly used to refer to the members of this species found in coastal areas where salmon is the primary food source. Brown bears found inland and in northern habitats are often called “grizzlies.” In this paper, brown bear is used to refer to all members of Ursus arctos.

The brown bear resembles its close relative the black bear, Ursus americanus. The brown bear, however, is usually larger, has a more prominent shoulder hump, less prominent ears, and longer, straighter claws. Both the prominent hump and the long claws of the brown bear are adaptations that are related to feeding behavior. The long claws are useful in digging for roots or excavating burrows of small mammals. The musculature and bone structure of the hump are adaptations for digging and for attaining bursts of speed necessary for capture of moose or caribou for food. Color is not a reliable key in differentiating these bears because both species have many color phases. Black bears, for example, occur in many hues of brown, and even shades of blue and white. Brown bear colors range from dark brown through light blond.

Bear weights vary depending on the time of year. Bears weigh the least in the spring or early summer. They gain weight rapidly during late summer and fall and are waddling fat just prior to denning. At this time most mature males weigh between 500 and 900 pounds (180-410 kg) with extremely large individuals weighing as much as 1,400 pounds (640 kg). Females weigh half to three-quarters as much. An extremely large brown bear may have a skull 18 inches long (46 cm) and 12 inches wide (30 cm). Such a bear, when standing on its hind feet, is about 9 feet (2.7 m) tall. Inland bears are usually smaller than coastal bears, probably because they do not have a readily available supply of protein-rich food, such as salmon, in their diet.

Brown bears have been known to live 34 years in the wild, though this is rare. Usually, old males may reach 22 years. Old females may live to 26. Brown bears have an especially good sense of smell and under the right conditions may be able to detect odors more than a mile distant. Their hearing and eyesight are probably equivalent to that of humans. When bears stand upright, it is not to get ready to charge but to test the wind and to see better.

Life history: Mating takes place from May through July with the peak of activity in early June. Brown bears generally do not have strong mating ties. Individual bears are rarely seen with a mate for more than a week. Males may mate with more than one female during breeding season. The hairless young, weighing less than a pound, are born the following January or February in a winter den. Litter size ranges from one to four cubs, but two is most common. Offspring typically separate from their mothers as 2-year olds in May or June. Following separation, the mother can breed again and produce a new litter of cubs the following year. In some parts of Alaska, research results reveal that offspring may not separate from their mothers until they are 3 to 5 years old. This appears to be most common in areas where food is scarce. In some of these areas, females may skip one to three years before producing new litters.

Bear populations vary depending on the productivity of the environment. In areas of low productivity, such as on Alaska’s North Slope, studies have revealed bear densities as low as one bear per 300 square miles. In areas teeming with easily available food, such as Admiralty Island in Southeast Alaska, densities as high as one bear per square mile have been found. In central Alaska, both north and south of the Alaska Range, bear densities tend to be intermediate, about one bear per 15-23 square miles. These are average figures which shouldn’t be interpreted to mean that each bear has this much territory for its exclusive use. The area occupied by any individual bear may overlap that used by many other individuals.

Safety: All brown bears should be treated with respect and can be safely observed only from a distance of at least 100 yards. This is especially true for family groups of a female and her offspring as mother bears are very protective towards their young. Bears protecting a food source, such as the buried carcass of a moose or caribou, should also be treated with special caution. In bear country, campers can best avoid conflicts with bears if they minimize food odors, store their food out of a bear’s reach and away from their camp, and avoid camping on bear travel routes.

Food habits: Like humans, brown bears consume a wide variety of foods. Common foods include berries, grasses, sedges, horsetails, cow parsnips, fish, ground squirrels, and roots of many kinds of plants. In some parts of Alaska, brown bears have been shown to be capable predators of newborn moose and caribou. They can also kill and consume healthy adults of these species and domestic animals. Bears are fond of all types of carrion as well as garbage in human dumps.

Except for females with offspring and breeding animals, bears are typically solitary creatures and avoid the company of other bears. Exceptions to this occur where food sources are concentrated such as streams where bears can catch salmon swimming upstream to spawn. At McNeil River Falls, the largest concentration of brown bears occurs annually. Biologists have observed more than 60 bears at one time, attracted by spawning salmon.

Winter dormancy: In the winter when food is unavailable or scarce, most Alaska brown bears enter dens and hibernate through the winter. While in this state, their body temperatures, heart rate, and other metabolic rates are reduced. Their need for food and water is eliminated. In northern areas with long hard winters, bears may spend from 5 to 7 ½ months in dens. In areas with relatively warmer winters, such as Kodiak Island, a few bears may stay active all winter. Pregnant females are usually the first to enter dens in the fall. These females, with their newborn cubs, are the last to exit dens. Adult males, on the other hand, appear to enter dens later and emerge earlier than most other bears.

Hunting: Bear hunting is popular in Alaska and, with proper management, can occur without causing populations to decline. Bear hunting seasons are held in both spring and fall in some areas but only in fall in other areas. Cubs and females with offspring may not be killed. Bear meat should be thoroughly cooked to prevent contracting trichinosis, a parasitic disease that may be fatal to man.

Hunters should examine bears closely with binoculars before shooting to determine if the pelt has spots where the hair has been rubbed away. Such rubbed spots result in a poorer quality hide. A little extra time spent observing a bear before shooting may also prevent the hunter from taking a female that has cubs hidden nearby. An excellent guide to judging trophy brown bears and distinguishing between sexes of bears is the Take a Closer Look video which is available for viewing at most Alaska Department of Fish and Game offices.

Research and conservation: Because Alaska contains over 98 percent of the United States population of brown bears, and more than 70 percent of the North American population, it has a special responsibility for this large carnivore. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game is responsible for managing bears in Alaska and for ensuring that management is based on scientific knowledge of the biology of bear populations. Important components of this management effort include maintaining healthy populations of bears throughout Alaska, conservation of bear habitat, prevention of overharvest, and conducting the studies necessary to understand population requirements. As Alaska continues to develop, it is increasingly important for the public to recognize that conserving sufficient amounts of habitat is necessary for brown bears to continue to thrive in Alaska.

Two species live in Alaskan waters: the Horned Puffin (Fratercula corniculata) and the Tufted Puffin (Fratercula cirrhata). They belong to the family Alcidae, which includes auks, auklets, murres, murrelets, and guillemots. Alcids spend most of their lives on the open sea and only visit land to breed in the summer. In Alaska, puffins breed on coastal islands and headlands from Forrester Island in southeastern Alaska to Cape Lisburne on the Chukchi Sea Coast. Horned Puffins are more prevalent farther north than Tufted Puffins.

General Description: The most striking puffin feature is the large colorful bill. Early sailors dubbed them the "sea parrot" from their stout bodies, short wings, and their orange or red webbed feet which are placed far back on their body. Both males and females have the same markings.

Horned puffins are the species most often depicted on souvenirs. In summer they have a black back and neck with white on the sides of the head and on their breast. The white breast is so distinctive that in one Eskimo language puffins are called katukh-puk, meaning "big white breast." The Horned Puffin has a small, fleshy, dark "horn" above each eye in the summer. The beak is bright yellow with a red tip. Adults are about 14 inches (36 cm) long and weigh about 1 1/4 pounds (600 gm).

Tufted Puffins are named for tufts of feathers that curl back from each side of the head. They have dark, black bodies and white faces. They have orange feet,and their bills are red and yellow.

Puffin bills are larger and more colorful in the summer nesting season than in winter. Both species shed the bill’s outer layers in late summer, which leaves a smaller, drab-colored bill. Also, their bodies are not as distinctly marked with white but tend to be dusky gray.

Life History: Puffins, like many other sea birds, nest underground. They generally arrive at breeding colonies in May but arrive later in northern areas due to the lateness of spring. The toes of their webbed feet have sharp claws that are used to scratch out burrows 3 to 4 feet deep into the steep hillsides of their nesting areas. At rockier sites where soil is scarce or nonexistent, puffins nest in rocky slopes or cliff faces. In May, puffins arrive at the nesting grounds. Both species lay only a single, whitish-colored egg. The egg is incubated for 42-47 days while the parents take turns incubating. The off-duty bird goes out to sea to feed. The chick is hatched in July or early August, and for the next 45-55 days until it is fledged, it remains in the burrow while its parents take turns feeding it and standing watch. After five days or so the chick can keep itself warm, and both adults leave to gather food for the chick. As Fall approaches, there are gradually fewer birds at the colony. Adults leave for the winter as chicks fledge and grow on the open ocean. Most birds spend the winter far offshore in the north Pacific Ocean and do not venture near land. Young puffins remain on the open sea during the summer of their first year. When they are 2 years old they visit the colony during the summer. At 3, puffins are mature enough to breed, but it is only at 4 that they are certain to breed. Some banded birds have been found still breeding at 10 years old. Few records of the age of Pacific puffins exist, but an Atlantic puffin is known to have lived 39 years.

Feeding and Behavior: Puffins are built for swimming underwater rather than for flying. They swim underwater using their wings to propel them and their webbed feet only for maneuvering. On land, puffins are agile and can stand and walk nimbly on their toes. It is in the air that the dignified, agile puffin becomes a bit awkward. Getting airborne is always a touch-and-go matter. They must run along the water surface for a long way, sometimes flying right through waves before they can take off. From land they dive off cliffs to gain enough speed for flight. In the air, as in the water, they use their feet to help change direction.

Puffins feed in flocks, with fish and zooplankton the mainstay of their diet. While fishing, they dive into the water right from the air continuing their "flight" under the surface where they flap half-folded wings for propulsion using their feet as underwater paddles. When catching fish for their young, they manage to line them up crosswise in their bills, heads dangling out one side, tails another, somehow not losing the one already caught when they add another to the line. Tufted Puffins are famous for stealing the bait from fisher’s hooks as they go into the water.

Conservation and Management: Historically, puffins were used for food and clothing by Alaskan Natives. One method of catching puffins was by using a net on the end of a long pole. The hunter waited for a puffin to fly in towards its nesting burrow, then suddenly placed the net in the puffin’s flight-path. The puffin, unable to quickly change its direction of flight, could not avoid the net. Aleut Natives made parkas of puffin skins, which are very tough, worn feather side in.

Puffins are abundant in Alaska today, but their numbers have declined along the coast of the Lower 48 due to oil pollution and fishery conflicts. Puffins are particularly susceptible to oil pollution because of their aquatic habits and the flightless period in winter for some individuals that undergo a complete molt. Birds that undergo a partial molt may not be flightless. Puffins may desert their nests if disturbed by humans during nesting. Most seabird nesting colonies in Alaska are protected by federal and state laws. Permits are required to land on most seabird nesting islands.

The early Russian settling of Alaska was largely a result of the sea otter industry. In 1867, when Russian exploitation had greatly reduced the numbers of sea otters, Alaska was sold to the United States. The few conservation measures that had been instituted by the Russians in their final years of occupation were dropped by the Americans, and hunting intensified. Sea otters became alarmingly scarce. Finally in 1911, when so few animals were left that it was no longer profitable to hunt them (in many areas they were completely exterminated), sea otters were given full protection under the Fur Seal Treaty. The treaty was signed by the United States, Great Britain, Russia, and Japan.

In 1960, the state of Alaska assumed management authority for sea otters. The management program conducted by the state included the successful reintroduction of sea otters to unoccupied habitat in Southeast Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington. The Marine Mammal Protection Act transferred management authority to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1972. Recovery of the Alaska sea otter population has been dramatic. Perhaps as few as 2,000 total animals existed in 1911, but by the mid-1970s the Alaska population numbered between 110,000 and 160,000. Most of the sea otter habitat in Alaska has now been repopulated. The principal exception is Southeast Alaska where numbers are increasing rapidly and otters are moving into new areas. Smaller populations exist in the Commander and Kurile islands, British Columbia, Washington, and California.

General description: Sea otters are members of the weasel family (Mustelidae) and are related to mink and river otters. Adult males weight 70 to 90 pounds (32-41 kg) with some individuals weighing 100 pounds. Females average 40 to 60 pounds (18-27 kg). Adults reach a length of 4.5 feet (1.4 m). The hind feet are webbed and are adapted for swimming. The toes on the forefeet are short and stiff, enabling the animal to deftly handle food. On land their gait is clumsy. Probably because of this vulnerability, they are seldom found more than a few yards from water.

The fur, which is possibly the finest in the world, consists of a very dense underfur of inch-long fibers and sparse guard hairs. The underfur ranges from brown to almost black. Guard hairs may be black, pale brown, or silver, often giving a veiled effect of silvery hairs on a dark background. Older animals often develop a silvery head. This, combined with the prominent whiskers, leads to the nickname of "Old Man of the Sea."

Unlike seals, which rely on a heavy layer of blubber for protection against the cold North Pacific waters, sea otters depend on air trapped in their fur for maintaining body temperature. If the fur becomes soiled or matted by material such as oil, the insulation qualities are lost. This results in loss of body heat and eventual death. For this reason, otters spend much time grooming their fur to keep it clean.

Life history: Sea otters mate at all times of the year, and young may be born in any season. However, in Alaska most pups are born in late spring. Like other marine mammals, they have only one pup during each breeding cycle. A pup weighs 3 to 5 pounds (1.4-2.3 kg) at birth and is light brown in color. The female's maternal instinct is very strong and she seldom leaves her pup except when diving for food. When traveling, sleeping, or preening, the pup usually rides its mother's chest as she floats on her back. The pup may weigh 30 pounds (14 kg) when weaned and looks almost as big as its mother. Females can produce one pup a year, but in areas where food is limited, they may produce pups every other year.

Sea otters usually do not migrate. They seldom travel far unless an area has become overpopulated and food is scarce. They are gregarious and may become concentrated in an area, sometimes resting in pods of fewer than 10 to more than 1,000 animals. Breeding males will drive nonbreeding males out of areas where females are concentrated. In some areas, the nonbreeding males will concentrate in "male areas" which are usually off exposed points of land where shallow water extends offshore. Bald eagles prey on newborn pups and killer whales may take a few adults, but predation is probably insignificant. Many sea otters live for 15 to 20 years.

Food habits: Sea urchins, crabs, clams, mussels, octopus, other marine invertebrates, and fishes make up the normal diet of sea otters. They usually dive to the bottom in 5 to 250 feet of water and return with several pieces of food, roll on their backs, place the food on their chests and eat it piece by piece using their forepaws and sometimes a rock to crack shells. In the wild, sea otters never eat on land.

The search for food is one of the most important daily activities of sea otters, as large amounts are required to sustain the animal in healthy condition. Feeding dives generally last less than one minute although some otters are capable of staying underwater for five minutes or more. Captive animals require a daily food intake equal to one-quarter of their body weight. In order to obtain the 8 to 15 pounds (4-7 kg) of solid food needed, an otter may have to bring up 40 to 50 pounds (18-23 kg) of whole shellfish. Their feeling habits may result in conflicts with subsistence, recreational, and commercial fishers when otters move into areas that support important shellfish resources.

Human impacts: Sea otters are hunted by Alaska Natives for subsistence and products used in handicrafts. They are sometimes caught and drowned in fishing nets. The Exxon Valdez oil spill dramatically demonstrated the effects of oil contamination on sea otters. More than 1,000 carcasses were found after the spill, and it is likely that the total number that died was several times greater. Thus, while sea otters are flourishing in Alaska's waters, it is clear that they are susceptible to human activities.

General description: Humpback whales are distinguished from other whales by the extremely long flippers which may reach 25 to 30 percent of the length of the entire animal. The animals appear generally dark when viewed from above although the flippers may have varying amounts of white on the dorsal side. The underside of the flippers and tail, and often the sides and ventral surfaces of humpback whales may be partially white. Humpback whales have a small dorsal fin which is often seen when the animal is beginning to dive. Adults may reach a length of 55 feet (16.7 m) although the average adult length for west coast animals taken during the days of whaling was 42 feet (12.7 m) for females and 40.5 feet (12.3 m) for males. Like other baleen whales, adult females at any given age are usually larger than males. The plates of baleen are generally dark in color and number 270 - 400 on each side of the upper jaw.

Distribution and migration: Humpback whales occur throughout the world's oceans but they are not common in arctic waters. Although humpbacks may be seen at any time of year in Alaska, most animals undertake long distance migrations during the fall to temperate or tropical wintering areas where reproduction occurs and the young are born. During spring, the animals migrate back to Alaska where food is abundant. Humpback whales that summer in the north Pacific are from three separate stocks which winter in Mexico, in Hawaii, and in the western Pacific near the Mariana, Bonin, and Ryukyu islands. Whales that summer in Alaska are primarily from the Hawaii stock. Although the length of time needed to make migrations is not well known, one whale that was identified in Alaska was seen 39 days later in Hawaii 2,800 miles (4,500 km) away. When in Alaska, humpback whales tend to concentrate in several specific areas including Southeast Alaska, Prince William Sound, the area near Kodiak and the Barren Islands, the area between the Semidi and Shumagin Islands, and the eastern Aleutian Islands and southern Bering Sea.

Abundance: Before whaling began, approximately 15,000 humpbacks are estimated to have existed in the north Pacific. Humpbacks were subjected to severe harvest pressure during the twentieth century; more than 23,000 animals were taken in the north Pacific before this species was granted protection from whaling in 1966. By that time the north Pacific population may have been reduced to 1,000 animals. Recent studies, including those following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, indicate that more than 500 humpbacks may now be found in Southeast Alaska during summer, and more than 100 humpbacks may be found in Prince William Sound.

Food habits: Humpback whales in Alaska feed principally on herring, other small schooling fish, and on swarms of euphausiids (krill). These whales use a variety of feeding behaviors to catch food including underwater exhalation of columns of bubbles that concentrate prey, feeding in formation, herding of prey, and lunge feeding. Multi-year group association and cooperative feeding between individuals has been observed. Ventral grooves allow the animal's throat to expand greatly and take in large volumes of water which are then forced out across the baleen which retains the food.

Reproduction: Humpback calves are born in tropical waters after a gestation period of approximately 11 to 12 months. Newborn animals average 2 tons in weight, measure approximately 12 feet (3.6 m), and suckle for up to a year. Sexual maturity is reached at 4 to 6 years. Mature females give birth every two or three years although females in Southeast Alaska have been seen with new calves during two or more consecutive summers. Songs produced by males on the wintering grounds appear to be related to courtship. The significance of songs recorded on summering grounds is less well known but some of the calls are believed to be related to feeding activities.

Sources of mortality: Killer whales and humans are the major predators of humpback whales. Sharks may also take some animals. Although not observed in Alaska, humpbacks have died from paralytic shellfish poisoning in New England. Collisions with vessels, entanglement in gillnets, entanglement in seine nets, entanglement in fishing lines, and entanglement in cables from abandoned logging operations have all killed humpbacks in Alaska. A Federal Recovery Plan was formulated for this species in 1991. The intent of this plan is to assist humpback populations to grow and to reoccupy areas where they were historically found.

Harbor seals do not appear to make long annual migrations like some species of marine mammals. However, considerable local movements occur. Tagging studies have shown that juveniles move up to 150 miles (242 km) from their birth places. A radio-tagged adult was discovered 120 miles (193 km) from its tagging site. As more seals are being satellite-tagged, much more information is becoming available about winter and summer movements.

General description: Harbor seals are mammals, that is they are hairy, warm-blooded, air-breathing animals which suckle their young. They weigh about 24 pounds (11 kg) at birth and gain weight rapidly during a month-long suckling period, perhaps doubling their weight. Average weight for adults is about 180 pounds (82 kg); males are somewhat larger than females. They are covered with short, stiff, bristle-like hair. Coloration varies, but two basic patterns occur: a dark background with light rings, or light colored sides and belly with dark blotches or spots. Harbor seals molt annually, usually in late summer.

Harbor seals are well adapted to life in the sea. They are able to dive to depths exceeding 600 feet (183 m) and can remain submerged for over 20 minutes. Oxygen-conserving adaptations that allow such dives include reduced peripheral circulation, reduced heart rate, and high levels of myoglobin (muscle oxygen binder). Harbor seals are graceful and efficient swimmers as they use their hind flippers for propulsion and foreflippers as rudders. Movement on land, however, is slow and laborious.

Life history: In Alaska, single pups are born between May and mid-July. The young pups are able to swim almost immediately after birth. They normally remain with their mothers about one month, after which they are weaned and separate from their mother. At that time over half their body weight may consist of fat, providing them a head start on self-sufficiency. Sexual maturity occurs at between 3 and 7 years. Mature females mate shortly after the weaning of their pups; however, the embryo does not implant in the uterus until about 11 weeks later, a trait called delayed implantation. Active fetal development is about 8½ months.

The sex ratio of harbor seals at birth is approximately equal and remains so until about 5 years of age. Thereafter mortality rates for males are higher, and females become relatively more abundant. Maximum ages estimated from annual rings in their teeth are 26 years for a male and 32 years for a female.

Food habits: In Alaska, commonly eaten prey include walleye, pollock, Pacific cod, capelin, eulachon, Pacific herring, salmon, octopus, and squid.

Abundance and trends: Harbor seals are a difficult species to census because they can be accurately counted only when they are hauled out. They haul out in thousands of locations in Alaska, and even if seals at all sites could be counted, the proportion of the total population hauled out at any given time is unknown. The total Alaska harbor seal population probably ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 animals. Since implementation of the Marine Mammal Protection Act in 1972, hunting has been restricted to Alaska Natives. In some areas, harbor seals are an important part of the subsistence economy. The annual harbor seal harvest is about 2,500 to 4,000 animals.

The number of harbor seals has declined in several areas of the Gulf of Alaska and Prince William Sound since the mid 1970s. At Tugidak Island near Kodiak, numbers have declined 90 percent from approximately 11,000 seals to 1,000. The reasons are unknown.

Fishery conflicts: The harbor seal's habit of damaging or removing salmon from gillnets is the major conflict between seals and commercial fishers in Alaska. This behavior creates economic losses for fishers and often fosters an antagonistic attitude toward seals. The Copper River Delta, the mouths of the Stikine and Taku rivers, and portions of Bristol Bay are areas with notable harbor seal-fishery conflicts. Sometimes seals are caught and killed or injured in fishing gear, primarily in gillnets and occasionally in crabpots.

They are called sea lions because they resemble the terrestrial lion of Africa and Asia. Large adult male Steller's sea lions have disproportionately large necks and shoulders. This, coupled with longer, coarser hair on the neck and shoulders, gives them the appearance of having manes, as do lions.

General description: At birth, the sea lion pup's coat is chocolate brown with a frosty appearance because the tips of the hair are colorless. Color gradually lightens as the animal ages and periodically molts. Most adult females are a yellowish, cream color on the back, although some remain darker. Nearly all males stay darker on the front of the neck and chest; some are even a reddish color.

Males and females have a marked size difference. Weight at birth is 51 pounds (23 kg), and body length is 45 inches (112 cm). Females grow rapidly during the first four years but slow by the fifth year, with little growth after age 6. Males continue to grow until the eleventh year. Although there are variations, most females reach maximum size by the seventh year, and males reach adult size by the twelfth year. The average weight of an adult male is 1,245 pounds (566 kg), and the body length averages 10 2/3 feet (282 cm). Adult females average 579 pounds (263 kg) in weight and 8 2/3 feet (228 cm) in length. Although only 20 percent longer, the average adult male weighs over twice as much as the average adult female.

Life history: Steller's sea lions gather on well-defined, traditionally-used rookeries to pup and breed. Males defend individual territories from approximately mid-May through mid-July. They mate with females which give birth, then come into estrus in their territory. Females give birth to a single pup anytime from mid-May through July. They breed shortly after giving birth, but the fertilized egg does not implant in the uterus and begin growing until October. Some females first breed in their third year, producing young in their fourth year. By their sixth year, nearly all females are breeding and producing pups. Males are physiologically able to breed at 3 to 6 years, but they probably do not participate until after 8 to 10 years because of strong territorial competition among the largest males.

Age at weaning varies among Steller's sea lions; some pups are weaned in the first year, while others may suckle until 3 years of age. At birth the sex ratio seems to favor males slightly. Twins occur rarely.

Distribution and migration: Steller's sea lions are found from the northwestern California coast northward into the Bering Sea to Bering Straits, in the Okhotsk Sea and along the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia, in the Kurile and Commander islands, and south as far as Hokkaido and northern Honshu in Japan. In the 1970s, the worldwide population of Steller's sea lions was about 281,800, with the Alaska population estimated at 242,000, including pups. The number of sea lions in Alaska declined by 50 percent from the mid-1970s to the mid-1980s.

Seasonal movements occur generally from exposed areas in summer to protected areas in winter. Steller's sea lions can move over long distances. The longest recorded movement was by an animal marked at Marmot Island near Kodiak and taken near Ketchikan, a distance of approximately 900 miles (1,645 km).

Food habits: As marine carnivores, Steller's sea lions eat a wide variety of fish such as pollock, flounder, herring, capelin, Pacific cod, salmon, rockfish, sculpins, and invertebrates such as squid and octopus. Most of the top-ranked prey of sea lions are off-bottom, schooling species. Feeding occurs from the intertidal zone to the continental shelf, and Steller's sea lions are considered top level consumers.

Human uses: Steller's sea lions were historically a primary source of food for inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands. Clothing, boots, and boat coverings were made from skins. The Chinese once used Steller's sea lion whiskers for cleaning opium pipes. Fur farmers used Steller's sea lion meat for fox food along the Alaska coast. Between 1964 and 1972, Steller's sea lion pups were commercially harvested. The hides were used in manufacture of coats, boots, gloves, and other garments. Since 1972 (after passage of the Marine Mammal Protection Act) and into the 1980s, there has been little use of Steller's sea lions, although some are still taken by Alaskan Natives for food around Kodiak Island, the Aleutians, and the Pribilof Islands.

General description: Black bears are the smallest of the North American bears. Adult bears stand about 29 inches (.73 m) at the shoulders and measure about 60 inches (1.5 m) from nose to tail. The tail is about two inches long. Males are larger than females. An average adult male in spring weighs about 180-200 pounds (81.8 to 90.9 kg). They are considerably lighter when they emerge from winter dormancy and may be 20 percent heavier in the fall when they are fat.

The color of this bear over its entire range varies from jet black to white. A very rare white or creamy phase occurs on Kermode Island and vicinity in British Columbia. Three colors are common in Alaska. Black is the most often encountered color, but brown or cinnamon bears are often seen in southcentral Alaska and the southeastern mainland. The rare blue (glacier) phase may be seen in the Yakutat area and has been reported in other parts of Southeast Alaska. Only the black color phase is seen on the islands of Southeast. Black bears may have a patch of white hair on the fronts of their chests.

Black bears are most easily distinguished from brown bears by their straight facial profile and their claws which are sharply curved and seldom over 1½ inches in length. Positive identification can be made by measuring the upper rear molar which is never more than 1¼ inches long in the black bear and is never less than that in a brown bear. Black bears have adequate senses of sight and hearing. They do have, however, an outstanding sense of smell.

Life history: Mating can take place anytime from June through July. Apart from that time, black bears are usually solitary, except for sows with cubs. The fertilized egg will not implant in the uterus until the fall. The cubs are born in their dens following a gestation period of about seven months. The cubs are born blind, nearly hairless, and weigh under a pound (.4 kg). Upon emerging from the den in May, they may weigh about 5 pounds (2.3 kg) and are covered with fine wooly hair. They are able to follow their mothers quite well. One to four cubs may be born, but two is most common. Cubs apparently remain with their mothers through the first winter following birth. Bears mature sexually at 3 to 6 years of age, depending upon their environment. In their more southern ranges they will breed every other year unless a litter is lost early during the first summer, then the sow will breed again that year. In more marginal environments such as northern Alaska, black bears keep their cubs with them an extra year and will breed every third year.

Food habits: Black bears are creatures of opportunity when it comes to food. There are, however, certain patterns of food-seeking which they follow. Upon emergence in the spring, freshly sprouted green vegetation is their main food item, but they will eat nearly anything they encounter. Winter-killed animals are readily eaten, and in some areas black bears have been found to be effective predators on newborn moose calves. As summer progresses, feeding shifts to salmon if they are available. In areas without salmon, bears rely primarily on vegetation throughout the year. Berries, especially blueberries, are an important late summer-fall food item. Ants, grubs, and other insects help to round out the black bear's diet. Male bears may occasionly prey on their own young.

Winter dormancy: As with brown bears, black bears spend the winter months in a state of hibernation. Their body temperatures drop, their metabolic rate is reduced, and they sleep for long periods. Bears enter this dormancy period in the fall, after most food items become hard to find. They emerge in the spring when food is again available. Occasionally, in the more southern ranges, bears will emerge from their dens during winter. In the northern part of their range, bears may be dormant for as long as seven to eight months. Females with cubs usually emerge later than lone bears. Dens may be found from sea level to alpine areas. They may be located in rock cavities, hollow trees, self-made excavations, even on the ground.

Human use: At one time black bears were classified as furbearers and were heavily used as such. Now there is a growing appreciation for them as a meat and trophy animal. Black bears are so common and widely distributed that they often cause damage at homesteads, construction camps, or even in towns and are destroyed as nuisance animals. These depredation kills can be minimized or eliminated if garbage and other food items which attract bears to camps or residences are eliminated. In some areas of Alaska, black bears are a traditional subsistence food. In the community of Huslia, for instance, hibernating bears are killed, cooked, and eaten by the men and boys of the community in a traditional dinner.

The best bear hunting areas are probably from the tidal areas in Prince William Sound southward through the panhandle of Alaska. In these areas, bears are spotted from boats as they forage on the beach. Early May through early June is usually the best time for such hunting. The pelts of spring black bears make beautiful trophies if taken before they start to rub.

If bear flesh is used for human food, it must be well-cooked as Alaska bears have been known to have trichinosis. This disease is transmitted by eating infected meat that is not cooked thoroughly.

Danger to humans: Bears are extremely powerful animals and potentially dangerous to humans. They are usually highly cautious and secretive, but if they have a food supply, they may defend it against all intruders. Every year, bears are found in Alaska'a biggest cities—in downtown Juneau, Anchorage and Fairbanks. Encounters with humans, especially near garbage dumps and fish drying racks, frequently occur. Sows with cubs must always be respected. A rule of thumb is never to come between or near a mother bear and her young.

Normally, these bears snort in a characteristic way and move off. They have, however, attacked without apparent provocation. Several persons have been victims of these unprovoked attacks. In general, all bears should be considered as potentially dangerous and should be treated with respect. Black bears that appear unafraid of humans and will allow people to approach closely should be treated with utmost caution.

General description: The Sitka black-tailed deer is smaller, stockier, and has a shorter face than other members of the black- tailed group. Fawns are born in early June and weigh 6 to 8 pounds (2.7-3.6 kg) at birth. The average October live weight of adults is about 80 pounds (36 kg) for does and 120 pounds (54.5 kg) for bucks, although dressed-weight bucks of over 200 pounds (90.1 kg) have been reported. The summer coat of reddish-brown is replaced by dark brownish gray in winter. Antlers are dark brown with typical black-tailed branching. Normal adult antler development is three points (including the eyeguard) on each side. Antlers are relatively small, with very few scoring more than 110 points by the Boone and Crockett system.

Their average life span is about 10 years, but a few are known to have attained an age of at least 15.

Life history: Fawns are born in late spring. After the winter snow pack recedes, deer disperse; migratory deer move to high elevation alpine/subalpine habitats while resident deer remain at lower elevations throughout the forest. Summer and early fall are periods of active foraging as deer accumulate fat reserves which will help them through the winter and early spring. With the first heavy frost, deer in the higher alpine and subalpine descend to the upper forest.

The breeding season (or rut) peaks during late November. Breeding bucks spend little time foraging and by late November have used up much of their fat reserve. Does, however, generally enter December in prime condition. Does breed during their second year of life and continue producing fawns annually until they are 10 or 12 years of age. Reproductive success decreases rapidly beyond 10 to 12 years and by age 15, which is probably the maximum life expectancy, reproduction has essentially ceased. Prime age does (5 to 10 years) typically produce two fawns annually.

Throughout the rest of the winter and early spring, deer are generally restricted to uneven-aged old-growth forest below 1,500 feet in elevation. The old-growth forest provides optimal winter habitat because the high broken canopy intercepts much snow but still provides enough light for the growth of forage plants used by deer. During winter, the distribution of deer at various elevations is influenced by changing snow depth. During extreme snow accumulation, many deer congregate in heavily timbered stands at lower elevations, and some may even move onto the beach. Spring is a critical period for deer, and if winter snows are deep and persistent many deer die of starvation. As snow melts in mid- to late spring deer begin to disperse, and by late spring and early summer they start rebuilding some of the fat reserves lost during winter.

Home range: Summer and winter home range areas vary from 30 to 1,200 acres and average about 200 acres for radio-collared deer on Admiralty Island. Migratory deer have larger annual home ranges than resident deer. The average distance between summer and winter home ranges is five miles for migratory deer and half a mile for resident deer. Movement of deer between watersheds appears to be minimal during winter.

Food habits: During summer, deer generally feed on herbaceous vegetation and the green leaves of shrubs. During winter, they are restricted to evergreen forbs and woody browse. When snow is not a problem, evergreen forbs such as bunchberry and trailing bramble are preferred. During periods of deep snow, woody browse such as blueberry, yellow cedar and hemlock, and arboreal lichens are used. Woody browse alone, however, is not an adequate diet and deer rapidly deplete their energy reserves when restricted to such forage.

Populations: Deer populations in Alaska are dynamic and fluctuate considerably with the severity of the winters. When winters are mild, deer numbers generally increase. Periodically, however, a severe winter will cause a major decline in the population. Deer have a high reproductive potential, and depressed populations normally recover rapidly. In some cases, however, predation may speed deer decline, as well as slow recovery to higher levels. The wolf, which occurs on the mainland and islands south of Frederick Sound, is considered the major predator of deer in Southeast Alaska. Both black and brown bears also prey on deer to some degree.

doe Maintaining large tracts of old-growth forest is vital for sustaining healthy populations of deer in Southeast Alaska. Deer are highly dependent on uneven-aged old-growth spruce/hemlock forests especially for winter survival. Areas cleared of trees produce abundant forage during summer. However, during winter, these areas are often inaccessible due to deep snow. As cleared areas age, conifer growth becomes dense, shading out understory forage plants leaving very poor habitat for deer. In the long term, cleared areas will experience a significant decline in deer numbers.

The presence of a number of parasites and disease has been noted in Alaska deer, with the lungworm being the most significant. Winter- killed deer often show signs of this parasite, particularly in northern Southeast Alaska. A high incidence of lungworm is frequently an indicator of high deer density, and lungworm infections probably contribute to deer mortality during hard winters. Lungworm is primarily a disease of animals of less than 2 years of age.

Hunting: Throughout much of the range of Sitka black-tailed deer, normal dispersed hunting pressure has little influence on deer numbers. Bag limits vary from complete closures to six deer of either sex, depending on populations. Early season hunting is concentrated in the alpine and subalpine areas. The largest portion of the harvest is taken in November during the rut when both sexes respond to a call resembling the bleat of a fawn. During late November and December, heavy snow sometimes concentrates deer at low elevations allowing high harvest levels when local weather conditions are favorable.

General description: Adult killer whales generally grow to a length of approximately 27 feet (8.2 m). Females grow to an average length of about 23 feet (7 m). Adults may weigh as much as 10 tons. Killer whales are predominantly black in color with large white patches under the jaw and above and behind each eye. Much of the ventral surface of killer whales is also white and there are large white patches which extend from the ventral area onto the flanks. A gray or white saddle area is often found behind the dorsal fin. This area is highly variable and is one of the characteristics used to identify individual whales. The very tall dorsal fin is characteristic of this species. The dorsal fin of the male may reach 6 feet in height. Dorsal fins in females usually do not exceed 3 feet in height.

Distribution and migration: Killer whales occur in all of the earth's oceans and seas. They are found throughout the marine waters of Alaska but occur most commonly over the waters of the continental shelf from Southeast Alaska through the Aleutian Islands and northward into the Chukchi and Beaufort seas. Killer whales migrate northward throughout the Bering Strait in the spring as the pack ice retreats. They leave the Beaufort and Chukchi areas in the fall when the ice advances. Killer whales in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska occur in groups of animals called pods. Most pods in Alaska number fewer than 40 animals. The individuals which comprise each pod change very little. Killer whale pods are matrilineal and consist of a female and her offspring of both sexes. Some pods are seen throughout much of the year in certain areas and are termed “resident” pods. Other pods appear to move over broad areas and are termed “transient” pods. Killer whales are quite vocal, and each pod appears to have its own unique, recognizable type of calls which do not change over periods as long as 25 years.

Abundance: During the 1980s, photoidentification techniques were used for the first time in Southeast Alaska and in Prince William Sound to determine the number of individuals and pods of killer whales occurring in those two areas. Following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, these studies were expanded and carried out on a more systematic basis. As a result of this research, approximately 250 animals in 15 pods have been identified in Prince william Sound. Approximately 160 animals have been identified in Southeast Alaska; approximately 100 animals have been identified in the area from Kodiak to the Shumagin Islands; and another 100 animals have been identified in the Bering Sea. Because some areas of Alaska have never had any photoidentification research done, substantial numbers of killer whales may remain to be identified and counted.

Food habits: Killer whales are opportunistic feeders and have been observed to prey on virtually any large marine animal available. Resident pods appear to feed primarily on a wide variety of fish such as salmon, herring, halibut, and cod. Transient pods feed primarily on any available species of marine mammal. The stomach of a killer whale found stranded near Prince William Sound contained a harbor seal, a harbor porpoise, and a Steller sea lion. Killer whales also have been observed to prey on river otters, squid, and several species of birds. Killer whales may briefly leave the water to grab seals and sea lions from the shore. Animals within a pod often feed cooperatively. When preying on large animals such as gray or humpback whales, the killer whales may attack as a pack, tearing away at the prey animal from several angles. When preying on schooling fish, smaller killer whales may swim close to the beach to drive the fish from shallow waters out to the rest of the pod. Large groups of killer whales are often involved in hunting schools of fish. Smaller groups (2-8 animals) are more often used when preying on marine mammals such as seals or porpoises. Little is known about the diving behavior of killer whales. Typical dive times last 3 to 5 minutes although this is highly variable, depending on the type of activity in which the animal is engaged.

Reproduction: Killer whales are long-lived animals and reproduce slowly. The maximum age which these animals can attain has not been determined but may be at least 34 years, based on counts of growth lines in the teeth. The annual birth rate has been estimated at 4 to 5 percent but may be higher following the deaths of several animals in a pod. In stable pods, some females may not breed at all. Much remains to be learned about the reproductive behavior of killer whales. Females are believed to become sexually active at 10 to 16 years of age when they are approximately 14 to 17 feet long. Young are born at intervals of three to eight years, although animals born in captivity have borne young 19 months apart. The gestation period has been estimated at 15 to 16 months. In the north Pacific, most births appear to occur between fall and spring.

Sources of mortality: Humans are the only predators of killer whales. Killer whales have been taken throughout the world for meat and oil. Many killer whales have also been removed from the wild for public display. In recent years, killer whales have begun removing black cod (sablefish) from longlines set by Alaska fishers. This has resulted in several of the animals being shot. Such shooting is no longer legal.